PARADIGM SHIFT
Paradigm shift (noun): a fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions. The pages of our history books display some of the most noteable paradigm shifts,depicting human change and evolution. However, what about the shifts that are not widely known? These forgotten shifts also play apart in the history of humanity and deserve a more detailed look. The focus of this project was to research and explain a paradigm shift. Many of the topics choosen were very out-of-the-box ideas that are often overlooked, including my topic of the evolution of alcohol.
Paradigm Shift Analysis; The Evolution Of Alcohol
By: Meghan Yizzi
Alcohol is referenced seventy five times in the Bible suggesting a positive association, yet in today’s society alcohol often holds a negative connotation (Matto). Alcohol gained this negative association in its more recent history after years of being an integral part of society for millions of years. Throughout history alcohol has played an important role in religion, medicine, nutrition, social cohesion and enhancing the overall quality of life (“Historical Evolution of Alcohol Consumption in Society”). Tracing the timeline in which alcohol and humans are linked shows many shifts in alcohol’s role and affects on society. This timeline can be separated into six eras that show shifts in alcohol’s role in society after watershed events. The chronology of alcohol and humanities relationship begins at the discovery of alcohol’s nutritional benefits and in this discussion, concludes in the present. These eras show drastic changes concerning alcohol and its role in society, consumption habits, reputation, regulation, and affects on the human body. This timeline displays the shifts alcohol has made throughout history transitioning from a positive reference in the Bible to gaining a negative connotation in modern times.
INBRIATED PRIMATES (10 MILLION BC – 7000 BC)
In order to understand alcohol’s role in modern society it is necessary to study its beginnings. Researchers approximate that alcohol was first consumed around 10 million years ago (William). Around this time the Earth started to cool down altering the dietary habits of primates. In addition to eating fruit picked from trees, primates also began eating the fruit that fell from trees. This fallen fruit went through a process of converting sugars to alcohol because of its exposure to the environment. This new food group became a vital source of nourishment as populations grew. However, the enzyme associated with the ability to metabolize alcohol was not as fully developed as it is in modern humans. Researchers discovered that all primates genetically contain this enzyme, formally known as ADH4, but in its early stages it had varying levels of development. The animals with a less developed ADH4 enzyme were not able to metabolize these alcohol-containing fruits and became inebriated. Since these primates were sick or more commonly known as drunk, the primates with a more developed enzyme were able to collect and consume more fruit. Therefore, natural selection favored the developed enzyme and these primates passed down their enzyme and knowledge that these fruits provided nourishment. Researchers believe this is where the original connection between alcohol consumption and happiness began, as alcohol was considered nourishment (William).
SETTLEMENTS FORMED FOR FERMENTATION (7000 BC – 1000 AD)
As history progressed alcohol was considered more than just a source of nourishment. Although the first account of humans purposely fermenting beer or wine is unknown and virtually untraceable, most researchers believe the first alcoholic beverage was produced accidentally around 7000 BC (Phillips 6). After this accidental formation and observing alcohol’s affects, the producer most likely tried replicating these results developing the first process of fermentation. After the discovery of fermentation, humans started depending on alcohol as a key source of nutrition. Wine and beer were safer forms of nourishment than ancient water supplies since they contain yeasts that kill bacteria that contaminate water (Phillip). Since water is vital for human survival and water sources were often contaminated, humans turned to alcoholic beverages to constitute their necessary water intake. As time progressed alcohol consumption became far-reaching and the first settlements were formed to ferment beer, which was considered a more important source of nourishment than bread (“Historical Evolution of Alcohol Consumption in Society"). Notably, at this point in history alcohol was not mass-produced; alcohol production was limited therefore alcohol consumption was moderate. Moderate consumption is a common thread in alcohol’s positive connotation. When consumed in modest amounts ancient societies found alcohol provided nourishment, aided in social environments and served as a medication. These positive attributes lead to its prevalent place in festivities, religious gatherings, and its role in everyday life in ancient Greece and Rome (Phillips). Occurring around 800 BC, the Greeks and Romans, who predominately drank wine, believed that moderate amounts of wine were necessary in every day life. Wine was consumed by all social classes including men, women, children and slaves and viewed as a vital source of nourishment. Viticulture was majorly developed by the Greeks and further improved by the Romans ("Social and Cultural Aspects of Drinking"). Vineyards could be found in almost every settlement and served as a major trade commodity. Wine was so important in ancient cultures that official mandates stated that every member at a table must be given an equal amount of wine. The Greek word “demokratia” which was then translated to democracy stemmed from this idea ("Historical Evolution of Alcohol Consumption in Society"). Strict rules were adopted against over consumption and drunkenness as they lead to raunchy, unacceptable actions. Regardless of these rules accounts claim many individuals became drunk and committed corrupt acts, forming the beginnings of alcohol’s negative affiliation. However, at this point in history few individuals abused it, therefore alcohol still held a largely positive association (Phillips). The Greek and Roman attitudes towards alcohol spread throughout the continent and provided the foundations for medieval drinking practices and ideologies (Phillips 44). Alcohol’s history overlaps in this period between religious and Roman practices. For the most part, Christianity adopted Roman alcohol ideologies, and even expanded on them. Wine was used in religious ceremonies and was commonly thought of as a bridge to the gods. This belief stemmed from the “otherworldly” experiences, such as feelings of relaxation, light-headedness and disorientation believed to bring a consumer closer to the gods (Phillips). This positive view was countered by the negative views of the Islamic religion. Islam, the first major religion to ban alcohol, forbade its followers from any alcohol consumption. Although Christianity did not ban alcohol consumption it implemented consumption limits, as drunkenness was not accepted. “There was an assumption that any negative message about alcohol in the Bible was aimed at excessive consumption or some other misuse, not at consumption itself” (Phillips 47). Ultimately, alcohol consumption was regarded as a necessary aspect in every day life, but over consumption was considered a sin. Exemplifying the positive association held by the Christian religion was the requirement of monasteries to plant vineyards between 500 AD and 1000 AD. The spread of Christianity significantly increased wine production throughout Europe allowing wine consumption to become an integral part of everyday life (Phillips).
THE MIDDLE AGES AND SOCIETAL SHIFTS (1000 AD – 1500 AD)
As a result of increased production, alcohol consumption spread throughout Europe with a generally positive connotation. However, political, economic and cultural shifts changed alcohol’s role in society. Since production was timely and laborious only certain groups were able to produce alcohol mainly the wealthy. Since the poor couldn’t afford the necessary equipment nor had enough property to house the equipment they turned to commercial breweries for their alcohol. This demand increased the supply thus increasing the number of breweries and types of alcoholic drinks produced. This elevated demand also increased the number of taverns as more patrons arose since they could not brew their own alcohol. However, with this increase in production came an increase in the negative aspects resulting from drunkenness. Governments and religions began regulating alcohol consumption as problems arose regarding gambling, prostitution and poor behavior. As a result of increased production medieval doctors began advising on consumption levels. Nonetheless, doctors did not advise on abstaining from alcohol all together as it was still believed to provide health benefits.
A turning point occurred in the late 1500s, with the production of distilled spirits. Brandy, whiskey, gin, and vodka were produced by heating an alcohol-containing liquid and cooling its vapor to form concentrated alcohol (Phillip 110). Often called “aqua vitae” since it was produced by fire and left a burning sensation in the consumer’s throat, distilled spirits shifted alcohol’s role in society. Doctors readily prescribed this “medicine” and patients readily complied. However, this marked a juncture in alcohol’s use. Although small amounts were found to aid health, patients and healthy individuals began using over-using distilled spirits. Physicians began losing control of distilled spirit consumption and more alcohol related problems arose. This increased the number of alcohol adversaries forming a negative association with alcohol consumption. This increasingly negative connotation spread throughout Europe and to the Americas with the age of colonization.
CROSSING THE OCEAN AND SOCIAL BOUNDARIES (1500 BC – 1800 BC)
When the Mayflower set sail for the New World it carried more beer than water (Historical Evolution of Alcohol Consumption in Society"). Alcohol was used as currency when trading with the Native Americans and vineyards, breweries and distilleries were quickly built. Europeans viewed alcohol as a source of safe nourishment and brought these ideologies to the New World. For the most part, Native Americans did not previously consume alcohol so their introduction by the colonists added fire to an apparent downward spiral in humanities relationship with alcohol. After being introduced to alcohol Native Americans greatly savored and over consumed it. By the time this toxic relationship between the Native Americas, Europeans, and alcohol was observed it was too late to be stopped. Stereotypes soon arose considering all Indians drunks, leading to unjust policies by governments. As a result of these policies Native Americans suffered as a group, regardless if they drank alcohol or not. Social boundaries soon became more defined as the upper class did not wish to be associated with the poor and Native Americans and only consumed high quality alcohol. As a result of Native American and colonist violence from drunkenness and separated social classes, the temperance movement greatly strengthened ("Social and Cultural Aspects of Drinking").
TEMPERANCE AND THE BIRTH PROHIBITION (1800 AD – 1935 AD)
The temperance movement further increased as the association between alcohol and violence, prostitution, suicide and insanity increased. Although there was no significant increase or decrease in alcohol consumption another factor greatly influenced alcohol’s role in society: clean water. Increased knowledge and improved facilities lead to clean water being readily available to most social classes for the first time in history. This greatly shifted alcohol’s role in society, as it was no longer the only provider of a key source of nourishment. As Phillips states, “The provision of supplies of safe drinking water was thus one of the conditions that made possible a real shift in attitudes toward alcohol and provided a basis for the rise of temperance ideologies in the 1800s” (191). Now that an alternative source of nourishment was available many individuals did not agree with any alcohol consumption. Drunkenness was greatly frowned upon especially in women and children, and coalitions started to form for the restriction of alcohol consumption across all social levels. With the availability of clean water, abstaining from alcohol consumption became possible and popular. This attitude lead to the national ban of production, consumption and importation in the United States from 1920 to 1933, otherwise known as prohibition (Colvin).
MODERN USAGE (1935 AD – PRESENT DAY)
The thirteen-year prohibition period came to a close with the ratification the 21st Amendment, but its influence along with the temperance ideas left a lasting impact on the world. Signed by President Theodore Roosevelt, the 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment allowing states to regulate their own laws governing alcohol production, importation and use (Colvin). Prohibition failed for numerous reasons including increased bootlegging, detrimental economic affects, and poor enforcement. Individual states now imposed their own drinking regulations including legal drinking age and commercial production and taxation. In 1984, all 50 states adopted the legal drinking age of 21 years old and statistics showed lower rates of alcohol rated automobile accidents, violence, and health issues (Colvin). Although researchers have observed a slight decrease in alcohol consumption rates, researchers have found that alcohol causes major health problems. These problems include anemia, cardiovascular disease, cirrhosis, dementia, depression, seizures, and recent findings of increased risk of cancer (Tabuchi). However, improved knowledge of the affects of alcohol on the human body has allowed doctors to better understand and treat these conditions and governments to better regulate consumption. Determining an appropriate and healthy limit is somewhat challenging as different cultures and body types can metabolize alcohol differently. Governments have imposed regulations with the intent of protecting their citizens without all together banning consumption. These modern issues correlate to historical issues surrounding alcohol, mainly concerning the balance between useful moderate consumption and harmful over consumption ("Social and Cultural Aspects of Drinking").
EVOLUTION OF ALCOHOL THROUGHOUT THE AGES
Alcohol has played a prevalent role in history since about 10 million years ago and continues to play a pivotal role in society. When its nutritional benefits were first discovered until the spread of Christianity it held a majorly positive connotation. The expansion of industry and distilled spirits lead to increased alcohol abuse leading to its negative association, which climaxed during the prohibition period. Currently, societies regulate alcohol use and are searching for a definition of moderate consumption. Alcohol has played a significant role throughout history, shifting from a positive to negative association and continues to shift roles while influencing humanity.
Works Cited
Colvin, David Leigh. Prohibition in the United States; a History of the Prohibition Party, and of the Prohibition Movement. New York: George H. Doran, 1926. Print.
"Historical Evolution of Alcohol Consumption in Society." Oxford Scholarship. N.p., n.d. Web.
Matto, Ken. "75 Bible References on Drinking Alcohol." 75 Bible References on Drinking Alcohol. N.p., n.d. Web.
Phillips, Roderick. Alcohol: A History. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina, 2014. Print.
"Social and Cultural Aspects of Drinking." Social Issues Research Centre. N.p., n.d. Web.
Tabuchi, T., Ozaki, K., Ioka, A., & Miyashiro, I. (2015). Joint and independent effect of alcohol and tobacco use on the risk of subsequent cancer incidence among cancer survivors: A cohort study using cancer registries. International Journal of Cancer, 137(9), 2114-2123. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29575
William, Sarah. "Ability to Consume Alcohol May Have Shaped Primate Evolution." AAAS. American Association for the Advancement in Science, n.d.
